Evening primrose, Oenothera biennis was first grown by North American Indians², is a plant native to North and South America grows throughout Europe and some parts of Asia¹. It is being named O. biennis as its yellow flowers bloom in the evening³. In the 17ᵗʰ century, it was well-known as “King’s cure-all” folk remedy in Europe²⁰.
The oil extracted from evening primrose oil (EPO) seeds is rich in omega-6 fatty acids, include gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)¹. Further to its rich source of GLA, EPO has been shown to beneficial to multiple health effects like systemic diseases marked by chronic inflammation includes atopic dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis and women’s hormonal associated symptoms such as premenstrual and menopausal syndrome, breast pain (mastalgia), hot flush and pre-eclampsia.
GLA an dihomo-gamma linolenic acid (DGLA) are the precursors of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1), imbalance between PGE1 and dopamine level is associated with the psychological symptoms in PMS²⁰. In a randomised double-blind placebo controlled parallel design, patients in GLA group had increased GLA and DGLA in plasma phospholipids compared to the placebo group. This is followed by the improvement in severity and duration of PMS in physical, mental and social as well as irritability¹¹. This is further confirmed in another study where the PMS severity scores was significantly improved after consumption of EPO¹².
Breast pain is commonly affecting 70% of ladies in reproductive age. Cyclical breast pain occurs when there is a change in hormone during menstrual¹³. Shortage of GLA or its derivatives makes breast tissues sensitive to sex hormones which are associated with breast pain¹⁴. Studies shown severity of pain was significantly reduced after taking EPO for a month¹⁵.
In a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled trial, significant improvement in hot flash severity as measured by hot flash related daily interference scale (HFRDIS) and social activities, sexuality and relation with others were observed among menopausal women after 6 weeks of EPO administration¹⁶.
Preliminary finding shown that EPO may reduce platelet aggregation and lengthen bleeding time⁴⁻⁵. This could be explained by the presence of DGLA, a precursor of PGE1⁶.
GLA an dihomo-gamma linolenic acid (DGLA) are the precursors of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1), imbalance between PGE1 and dopamine level is associated with the psychological symptoms in PMS²⁰. In a randomised double-blind placebo controlled parallel design, patients in GLA group had increased GLA and DGLA in plasma phospholipids compared to the placebo group. This is followed by the improvement in severity and duration of PMS in physical, mental and social as well as irritability¹¹. This is further confirmed in another study where the PMS severity scores was significantly improved after consumption of EPO¹².
Breast pain is commonly affecting 70% of ladies in reproductive age. Cyclical breast pain occurs when there is a change in hormone during menstrual¹³. Shortage of GLA or its derivatives makes breast tissues sensitive to sex hormones which are associated with breast pain¹⁴. Studies shown severity of pain was significantly reduced after taking EPO for a month¹⁵.
In a randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled trial, significant improvement in hot flash severity as measured by hot flash related daily interference scale (HFRDIS) and social activities, sexuality and relation with others were observed among menopausal women after 6 weeks of EPO administration¹⁶.
Preliminary finding shown that EPO may reduce platelet aggregation and lengthen bleeding time⁴⁻⁵. This could be explained by the presence of DGLA, a precursor of PGE1⁶.
GLA is regarded as the primary active component of evening primrose with role in anti-inflammatory effects. It suppressed production of interleukin-1-beta (IL-1-beta) which may be involved in inflammatory diseases include rheumatoid arthritis⁷. GLA is breakdown into DGLA, the precursor of PGE1 that inhibits inflammatory polymorphonuclear leukocyte cells. Besides, GLA may act competitively to inhibit pro-inflammatory 2-series prostaglandins production. DGLA is then converted to 15-hydroxy-DGLA that prevents conversion of arachidonic acid to inflammatory leukotrienes. Both GLA and DGLA are believed to improve the ratio of inflammatory and non-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes⁸⁻¹⁰. In a 12-week continuous parallel double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial, all clinical parameters such as overall severity and grade of inflammation, dryness, itch, and reduction surface area significantly improved in moderate-to-severe atopic dermatitis patients after taking EPO¹⁷.
EPO is generally well tolerated for adults, with reported minor adverse effects include temporary gastrointestinal effects such as indigestion, abdominal pain, fullness, nausea, softening of stool, rise in temperature, hypersensitive reactions like exanthema and headache.
Typical doses used in clinical trials is ranging from 2g to 6g daily.
Interaction may occur with these drugs and supplements:
Safety data on pregnancy and lactation has not beenestablished.
EPO is generally well tolerated for adults, with reported minor adverse effects include temporary gastrointestinal effects such as indigestion, abdominal pain, fullness, nausea, softening of stool, rise in temperature, hypersensitive reactions like exanthema and headache.
Typical doses used in clinical trials is ranging from 2g to 6g daily.
Interaction may occur with these drugs and supplements:
Safety data on pregnancy and lactation has not beenestablished.
The material is prepared for informational purposes only and should not be construed as a piece of personal medical advice. Owing to each person’s varying health needs, a physician should be consulted before acting on any information provided in this material. Although every effort is made to ensure that this material is accurate, it is compiled for internal use only and should not be considered definitive. Neither VitaHealth nor its employees, or information providers shall be responsible or liable for any errors, inaccuracies, or other defects in the information contained in this publication.
Evening primrose, Oenothera biennis was first grown by North American Indians², is a plant native to North and South America grows throughout Europe and some
Elderberry also known as Sambucus nigra L. extract is widely recognised for its high content of bioactive compounds, particularly polyphenols such as anthocyanins, flavonols (quercetin,
